Since its first demonstration in 2004, the large-scale commercial production of graphene has proven difficult and costly (‘large scale’ usually defined as weights more than 200 mg or films larger than 200 cm2). For instance, at an estimated cost of $50 000 to $200 000 per ton for graphene powders and $45 000 to $100 000 per m2 of graphene film, industrial production methods and costs are restraining graphene utility.